《Grice》
Implicature 「隱涵」=言外之意
A hamburger is a hamburger.
ただのtautologies(同語反覆)ではなく、
It is an additional conveyed meaningといったimplicatureである。
Cooperative Principle 「合作原則」
①Quantity maxims
所說的話應當包含當前交談目的所需的information。
所說的話不應包含超出需要的information。
②Quality maxims
不說自知是虛假的話。
不說缺乏足夠證據的話。(lack of adequate evidence)
③Relation Be relevant
說話要切題,不說與主題無關的話。
④Manner Be perspicuous
避免曖昧。(avoid obscurity)
避免歧義。(avoid ambguity)
簡潔。(brief)
有條理。(orderly)
Hedges 「模糊限制語」
①quality hedges
a. As far as I know,...
b. I may be mistaken, but...
c. I'm not sure if this is right, but...
d. He couldn't live without her, I guess.
沒有改變內容的真實條件,但削弱肯定語氣。
②quantityb hedges
a. As you probably know,...
b. So, to cut a long story short,...
c. I won't bore you with all the details,...
提醒聽者內容的有限度,需要自己去判斷什麼是所需的資訊。
③relation hedges
a. I don't konw if this is important, but...
b. This may sound like a dumb quertion, but...
c. Not to change the subject, but...
表示話題轉換的限制語,使兩個話題產生關聯,語言交際得以順利進行。
④manner hedges
a. This may be a bit confused, but...
b. I'm not sure if this makes sense, bit...
c. I don't know if this is clear at all, but...
話者意識到其說話內容無意中會讓聽者產生歧義時使用。
※總結
They say smoking damages your health (Quality)
All I know is smoking damages your health (Quantity)
The point is that smoking damages your health (Relevance)
Put plainly, smoking damages your health (Manner)
Coversational implicature 「會話涵義」
Charlene: I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.
Dexter: Ah, I brought the bread.
違反Quantity maxims。
合作原則解釋了話語的字面意義與實際意義之間的關係,
但人們常常違反合作原則,以含蓄間接的方式表達思想,進行交流。
強調由語言外部,以語境為基礎,探討話語表達的弦外之音
Generalized conversational implicature
一般會話含義
No special knowleges is required in the context to calculate the additional converyed meaning.
在言語交際過程中,某詞彙除了字面意義以外,還帶有僅在語言使用過程中顯現出的某種隱含意義。
I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looled over the fence.
『an X +> not speaker's X』
⇔particularized conversational implicature 在言語交際過程中,表達者明顯且刻意的違反「合作原則」,迫使聽者由其話語中推敲言外之意。